语言学知识点概括

ChapteroneIntroduction一定义1语言学LinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage2普通语言学GeneralLinguisticsThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics3语言languageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系4识别特征DesignFeaturesItreferstothedefiningpopertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Culturaltransmission文化传递arbitrarinessThereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsoundsPSthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressionsProductivityAnimalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosendDualityLanguageisasystemwhichconsistsoftwosetsofstructuresortwolevelsDisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeakerCulturaltransmissionHumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasisbutwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetailsofanylanguagesystemthisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmittednotbyinstinctanimalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies5语言能力CompetenceCompetenceistheidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage6语言运用performancePerformanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现7历时语言学DiachroniclinguisticsThestudyoflanguagechangethroughtimeadiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudywhichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime8共时语言学SynchronicallinguisticsThestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime9语言langueTheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity10言语paroleTherealizationoflangueinactualuse11规定性PrescriptiveItaimstolaydownrulesforcorrectbehaviortotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhatshouldnotsay12描述性DescriptiveAlinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse二知识点1languageisnotanisolatedphenomenonitsasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironmentbyhumanbeings语言不是一种孤立的现象而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动2几种观点和现象的提出者瑞士语言学家FdeSaussureFdeSaussureLangue和parole的区别USAlinguistNChomsky美国语言学家NChomskyin1950针对Saussureslangueampparole提出Competence和performance曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir4545languageisapurelyhumanandnoninstinctivemethodofcommunicationideasemotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbolsHall454545languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoralauditoryarbitrarysymbolsChomsky4545fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentenceseachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelementsUSALinguistCharlesHockett美国语言学家CharlesHockett提出了语言的识别特征designfeatures3thewordlanguageprecededbythezeroarticleitimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguageLanguage一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言4inordertodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystemwhatthelinguistshastodofirstiftostudylanguagefacts5languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfactssoitshardlypossibleforthelinguisticstodealwithitallatonce判断题6Fristdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音三问答题1whataremajorbranchesoflinguisticswhatdoeseachstudyPhonetics454545itsdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguageitsconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworldslanguagesPhonology4545thestudyofsoundssystemstheinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfallMorphology4545ItsabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformedSyntax454545454545itsasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguageSemantics4545ItssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstractionPragmatics4545thestudyofmeaningincontextofwordsSociolinguisticsthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics4545thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemindAppliedlinguistics4545theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning2whydowesaylanguageisarbitraryLanguageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsreferThefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguageitsonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutteranceAtypicalexampletoillustratethearbitrarinessoflanguageisarosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet3whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammarModernlinguisticsisdescriptiveitsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedate现代语言学是描述性的其研究以确实可靠的主要以口语形式的资料为基础traditionalgrammarisprescriptiveitisbasedonhighwrittenlanguage传统语法是规定性的研究高级书面语4IsmodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronicwhyModernlinguisticsismainlysynchronicfocusingonthepresentdaylanguageunlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudieditwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview现代语言学主要是共时性的重点研究现代语言除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述5whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguisticsspeechorwritingsSpeechenjoysforthefollowingreasonsSpeechprecedeswritingintermsofevolutionAlargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwritingspeechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage6howisSaussuresdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomskysBothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguagetheirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudyTwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual6thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolelangueisabstractrelativelystableparoleisconcretevariesfrompersontopersonfromsituationtosituation1Whatislinguistics什么是语言学LinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguageItstudiesnotanyparticularlanguagebutlanguagesingeneral2Thescopeoflinguistics语言学的研究范畴Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics普通语言学Thestudyofsoundswhichareusedinlinguisticcommunicationiscalledphonetics语音学Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology音系学Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology形态学Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax句法学Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics语义学Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics语用学Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsociolinguistics社会语言学Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycholinguistics心理语言学Thestudyofapplicationsastherecoveryofspeechabilityisgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics应用语言学ButinanarrowsenseappliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearningespeciallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguageOtherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics人类语言学neurologicallinguistics神经语言学mathematicallinguistics数字语言学andcomputationallinguistics计算机语言学3Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写IfalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuseitissaidtobedescriptiveifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsayitissaidtobeprescriptiveModernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarTraditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptiveThetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyusewhetheritiscorrectornotSynchronicanddiachronic共时和历时ThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudythedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudyInmodernlinguisticssynchronicstudyismoreimportantSpeechandwriting口头语与书面语SpeechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunicationModernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimarybutnotthewrittenformReasonsare1Speechprecedeswriting2Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform3IntermsoffunctionthespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewrittenandcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewrittenLangueandparole语言和言语TheSwisslinguistFdeSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcenturyLanguereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuseSaussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudyHebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparoletodiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguisticsCompetenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用ProposedbyAmericanlinguistNChomskyinthelate1950sHedefinescompetenceastheidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguageandperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationHebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerulesChapterTwoPhonology一定义1宽式音标BroadtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly2窄式音标NarrowtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics3清音VoicelessWhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapartlettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibrationthesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds4浊音VoicingSoundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds5元音VowelThesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels6辅音ConsonantsThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants7音位PhonemeThebasicunitinphonologyitsacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures8音位变体AllophonesDifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme9音素phoneAphoneticunitorsegmentitdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaningitsaspeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage10最小对立对MinimalpairWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestringsthetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair11超切分特征SuprasegmentalThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmentalfeaturesthemainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestressintonationandtone12互补分布complementarydistributionP35Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution13语言的语音媒介PhonicmediumoflanguageThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage在人类交际中有着一定意义对语言学研究来说举足轻重有限的声音是语音媒介14爆破音stopsWhenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcompletethespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosivetheyarebptdkg二知识点1statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5000languagesintheworldabouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform2ofthetwomediaoflanguagespeechismorebasicthanwriting3Phonetic组成Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学longestestablishedmostlydevelopedAuditoryphonetics听觉语音学Acousticphonetics声学语音学4articulatoryApparatusOrgansofSpeechPharyngealcavity咽腔Oral口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhereNasal鼻腔5ThetongueisthemostflexibleresponsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyothertheextremebackofthetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethusproducedasisusedinArabicandFrench6Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationofkandgthenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueleadstothesoundjtheobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthesoundstandd7nasalconsonantsmn9APhoneisaphoneticunitorsegment10Sequentialrules例子Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofawordthecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerulesthefirstphonememustbesthesecondphonememustbeportorkthethirdphonememustbelorrorw11EnglishhasfourbasictypesofintonationFallingtoneRisingtoneFallrisetoneRisefalltone三问答题1whatarethethreebranchesofphoneticshowdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsoundArticulatorydescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydifferAuditorystudiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsreachestheimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalidealAcousticstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsthewaysoundtravelfromthespeakertothehearer发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音以及这些语音为何有所不同听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质得出了重要结论即语音同一只是理论上的理想声学语音学研究语音的物理性质研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式2howaretheEnglishconsonantsclassifiedByplaceofarticulationandBymannerofarticulation3howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudywhodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferentbetweensayiandipandphaphoneticianoraphilologistwhy语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别为什么PhoneticsdescriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferencesPhonologydescriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaningAphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcosdifferencesinmeaning4whatsaphonehowisitdifferentfromaphonemehowareallophonesrelatedtoaphonemePhoneaspeechsoundaphoneticunitPhoneme4545acollectionofabstractsoundfeaturesaphonologicalunitAllophones4545actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts5whatisaminimalpairandaminimalsetwhyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要Minimalpairtwosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外其他部分都一样的两个语音组合Minimalsetagroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature一组具有上述特征的语音组合Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguageaphilologistcanidentifyitsphonemes通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组音位学家能辨别出它的音位6ExplainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondifferBroadtranscriptiononelettersymbolforonesoundNarrowtranscriptiondiacriticsareaddedtotheonelettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferencesbetweensounds7explainthesequentialruletheassimilationruleandthedeletionrule有序规则SequentialrulesRulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage同化规则AssimilationrulesTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherbycopyingafeatureofasequentialphonemethusmakingthetwophonessimilar省略规则DeletionruleItsaphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographicallyrepresentedChapterThreeMorphology一定义1词素MorphemeThebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage2自由词素FreeMorphemeFreemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves3黏着词素BoundmorphemesBoundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselvesmustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently4词根RootRootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity5词缀AffixThecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme6曲折词缀inflectionalaffixesThemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixessuchasnumbertensedegreeandcase7派生词缀DerivationalaffixesThemanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes8词干StemAstemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddedastemcanbeaboundrootafreemorphemeoraderivedformitself9形态学规则MorphologicalrulesTheyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword10前缀PrefixPrefixesmodifythemeaningofthestembutusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalwordexceptionsaretheprefixesbeandenm11后缀SuffixSuffixesareaddedtotheendofstemstheymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech3InusingthemorphologicalruleswemustguardagainstOvergeneralization二知识点Inflectionalmorphology1MorphologyDerivationalmorphologyFreemorphemesMorphemesRootBoundmorphemesInflectionalaffixesAffixesPrefixDerivationalaffixes2somewordsmaybesaidtocontainarootmorphemeSuffix4CompoundfeaturesorthographicallyacompoundcanbewrittenasonewordtwoseparatewordswithorwithoutahypheninbetweenSyntacticallythepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelementsemanticallythemeaningofacompoundisidiomaticnotcalculablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponentChapter5Semantics一定义1命名论ThenamingtheoryThenamingtheoryoneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaningandalsoaveryprimitiveonewasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlatoAccordingtothistheorythelinguisticformsorsymbolsinotherwordsthewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandforsowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings2意念论TheconceptualistviewItholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitreferstoratherintheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind3语境论ConceptualismItsbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontextsheraretwokindsofcontextthesituationalandthelinguisticcontext4行为主义论BehaviorismItreferstotheattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearerthistheorysomewhatclosetoconceptualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse5意义SenseItsconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticformItsthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticformitsabstractanddecontextualized6所指意义ReferenceItmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealphysicalworlditdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenonlinguisticworldofexperience7同义词SynonymyItreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms8多义词PolysemyItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaningthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning9同音形异义HomonymyItreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavedifferentmeaningshavethesameformiedifferentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspellingorinboth10同音异义HomophonesItreferstotwowordsareidenticalinsoundegrainreign11同形异义HomographsItreferstotwowordsareidenticalinformegtearvtearn12上下义关系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneralmoreinclusivewordandamorespecificwordthewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinateandthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms13反义词AntonymyItsthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension14成分分析法ComponentialAnalysis454545分析词汇抽象意义Itsawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaningthisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponentscalledsemanticfeatures15述谓结构分析PredicationAnalysis由BritishLinguistGLeech提出ItsanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysisPredicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositionsquestionscommandsect通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种16先设前提PresuppositionItsasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnectionApresupposesB17蕴涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtowsentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceBAMarkmarriedablondeheiressBMarkmarriedablonde二知识点1MajorviewsofmeaningstudyThenamingTheory45454545希腊ScholarPlatoTheconceptualism45454545观点代表人是JohnFirth但Bloomfield阐述更有说服力TheConceptualistview454545Ogden和Richards用classicsemantictriangleofsignificanceTheBehaviorism45454545英国Bloomfield提出使用了Jack和Jill故事阐明Thenamingtheory的局限性ItsonlyapplicabletoNounsonlyWithinthecategoryofnounstherearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdontexistintherealworldsense2Lexicalmeaningreference3主要的意义关系SynonymyAntonymyHyponymyPolysemyhomonymy41DialectalsynonymssynonymsusedindifferentregionaldialectsSynonyms2Stylisticsynonyms4545Synonymsdifferinginstyle分类3Synonymsthatdifferentintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning4Semanticallydifferentsynonyms例子1BritishEnglishLiftLuggageLorryPetrolFlatwindscreentorchAmericanEnglishElevatorBaggageTruckGasolineApartmentwindshieldflashlight2kickthebucketpopoffdiepassawaydecease5Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyleordegreeofformality6somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation例子AccuseofchargewithrebukeforsourmilkRottentomatoesaddledeggsrancidbaconorbutter7apolysemicwordieawordwithseveralmeaningistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningofthewordcompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence8Accordingnamingtheorywordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings9Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularspatiotemporalsituationthemaincomponentsofwhichincludeapartfromtheplaceandtimeoftheutterancethespeakerandthehearertheactiontheyareperformingatthetimethevariousobjectsandeventexistedinthesituation10thecontextulistviewwasfurtherstrengthenedbyBloomfieldwhodrewonbehaviouristpsychologywhentryingtodefinethemeaningoflinguisticforms11HomophoneswhentwowordsareidenticalinsoundRainreignnightknightpiecepeaceleakleekHomonymyHomographswhentwowordsareidenticalinspelling分类BowvbowntearvtearnleadvleadnCompletehomonymswhentwowordsareidenticalinbothspellingandsound例子Fastadjfastvscalenscalev121Gradableantonyms分级反义词amatterofdegree例子OldmiddleagedyounghotwarmcoldAntonym2Complementaryantonyms互补反义词amatterofdegreebetween分类twoextremes例子Alivedeadmalefemale3Relationalopposites关系反义词中间可以加成分如上中下fathersonteacherpupildoctorpatientbuysellabovebelow13句子间的意义关系senserelationbetweensentencesXissynonymouswithYXentailsYXpresupposesYXisacontradictionXissemanticallyanomalous14Analysisofmeaning意义的分析1Componentialanalysisawaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning对词汇成分的分析2Predicationanalysisawaytoanalyzesentencemeaning对句子意义的分析1isawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaningTheapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponentscalledSemanticfeatures一个单词的意义可以分析为称作语义特征的意义Thisisparalleltothewayaphonemeisanalyzedintosmallercomponentscalleddistinctivefeatures这一方法和把一个音位分析成更小的叫作区别性特征的方法类似PlusandminimumssignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentthesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedlettersOneadvantageofcomponentialanalysisisthatbyspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwordsitwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning加减号用来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在或缺省这些特征用大写字母来写15themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponentsTwoaspectsofSentencemeaninggrammaticalandsemanticmeaning16Selectionalrestrictions4545Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrules17Insemanticanalysisofasentencethebasicunitiscalledpredication4545454545PredicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentenceitappliestoallformsofasentenceincludingstatementsimperativeandinterrogativePredicationconsistsofArgumentsandPredicates述谓是句子基本单位是对句子的抽象化适用于包括陈述句祈使句和疑问句述谓由一个或数个论元和一个谓词组成Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredicationlargelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentenceapredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence论元是一个的逻辑的一个参与者谓词是关于论元的陈述或说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系18Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredicationweclassifythepredicationsintotwoplacepredicationhastwoargumentsoneplacepredicationhasoneargumentandnoplacepredicationhasnoargument19判断题althoughpredicateandargumentarethesamekindofunitintermsoftheircomponentialmakeuptheyhavedifferentrolesinthewholepredicationthepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelementforitincludestensemodalityectitmayalsosaidtogoverntheargumentsforitdeterminesthenumberofnatureofthearguments20Theanalysisofmeaningisahighlyabstractandcomplicatedmatter三问答题1howaresenseandreferencerelatedSensereferstotheinherentmeaningofalinguisticformwhichisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticformitsabstractanddecontextualizedReferenceiswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealphysicalworlditisamatterofrelationshipbetweentheformandreality2inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处Inthelightofcomponentialanalysisthemeaningofawordconsistsofanumberofdistinctivemeaningfeaturestheanalysisbreaksdownthemeaningofthewordintothesefeaturesitisthesedifferentfeaturesthatdistinguishwordmeaningsimilarlyaphonemeisconsideredasacollectionofdistinctivesoundfeaturesaphonemecanbebrokendownintothesedistinctivesoundfeaturesanditsthesesoundfeaturesthatdistinguishdifferentsounds3whatsgrammaticalitywhatmighttakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless什么是语法性一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的Grammaticality4545thegrammaticalwellformednessofasentenceAsentencemaybewellformedgrammaticallyieitconformstothegrammaticalrulesofthelanguagebutitisnotnecessarilysemanticallywellformedieitmaynotmakesenseatallChapter6pragmatics一定义1语境ContextThenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguageitsgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer2言语行为理论SpeechacttheoryItsanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguageitsaphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunicationitaimstoanswerthequestionwhatdowedowhenusinglanguageTheconceptofcausativesperformativesthelocutionaryacttheillocutionaryacttheperlocutionaryactandthe5categoriesofillocutionaryactsuggestedandformulatedbyJRSearleconstitutethespeechacttheory3叙述句ConstativesConstativesarestatementsthateitherstateordescribeandarethusverifiableanditbearingthetruthvalue4行为句PerformativesPerformativesaresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastateandarenotverifiable5言内行为LocutionaryActAlocutionaryactistheactofutteringwordsphrasesclausesitstheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntaxlexiconandphonology6言外行为IllcotionaryActAnillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeakersintentionitstheactperformedinsayingsomething7言后行为PerlocutionaryActPerlocuationaryActistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomethingitstheconsequenceoforthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance8句子意义SentencemeaningItreferstoasentenceandisagrammaticalconceptthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstractintrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication9话语意义UtterancemeaningItreferstoasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunicationitbecomesandutteranceanditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered10合作原则CooperativePrincipleItsproposedandformulatedbyPGriceapragmatichypothesisisaboutthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperateotherwiseitwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk11会话含义ConversationalimplicaturesAccordingtoPGriceitreferstotheextrameaningnotcontainedinthutteranceunderstandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeakersknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsoftheCP话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意二知识点1语用学的几个重要的理论言语行为理论Speechacttheory由英国哲学家JohnAustin在20世纪50年代末提出在此理论基础上John区分了定义了叙述句Constatives和行为句performatives在区分叙述句和行为句之后他又定义了言内行为言外行为和言后行为例子youhaveleftthedoorwideopenLocutionaryactexpressedwhateachwordofthissentenceliterallymeanIllutionaryactexpressedhisintentionofspeakingaskingsomeonetoclosethedoorPerlocutionaryactsomeoneheardthesentenceandclosethedoorthenthisactissuccessfullyperformed在这三种行为中语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣costhiskindofspeechactisidenticalwiththespeakersintentionandintheirstudyoflanguagecommunicationlinguistsaremostinterestedinhowaspeakerexpresseshisintentionandalsohowhisintentionisrecognizedbythehearer会话原则CP逻辑哲学家PaulGrice提出2合作原则的准则4MaximofCooperativePrinciple数量themaximofQuantity45454545你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求MakeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredDonotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired质量themaximofQuality45454545不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话DonotsaywhatyoubelievetofalseDonotsayforwhichyoulackadequateevidence关系themaximofrelation45454545使你的话与话题相关berelevant方式themaximofmanner45454545避免模糊歧义应简明有序AvoidobscurityofexpressionandambiguityBebriefbeorderly3六七十年代时美国哲学语言学家JohnSearle对言外行为分成了5类阐述性Representatives4545tocommitthespeakertosomethingsbeingtheCasetothetruthofwhathasbeensaid例词statingbelievingswearinghypothesizing最有代表性指令性Directives4545areattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosomething例词invitingsuggestingrequestingadvisingwarningthreateningordering是特有实例承诺性Commissives4545whenspeakingthespeakerputshimselfunderobligation例词promisingundertakingvowing最典型表达类Expressives4545thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs例词apologizingthankingcongratulating宣告类Declarations4545thesuccessfulperformanceofanactofthistypebringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality例句InowdeclarethemeetingopenIappointyouchairmanofthecommitteeIfireyou这五类differintheirstrengthorforce4Semantics和Pragmatics的区分PragmaticsstudieshowmeaningisconveyedintheprocessofcommunicationThebasicdifferencebetweenthemisthatpragmaticsconsidersmeaningincontexttraditionalsemanticsstudiesmeaninginisolationfromthecontextofuse5语境中听者与说话者sharedknowledgeisoftwotypesTheknowledgeofthelanguagetheyusetheknowledgeabouttheworldincludingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace6Sentencemeaning与Utterancemeaning的区别Sentencemeaning4545abstractdecontextualizedUtterancemeaning4545concretecontextualizeditsbasedonsentencemeaningitstherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunicationorsimplyinacontext区分句子和话句类似区分语义和语用学关键在于是否考虑语境7WhilemostutterancestaketheformofsentencesiemostutterancesarecompletesentencesIntermsofsyntaxsomeutterancesarenotandsomecantevenberestoredtocompletesentences